How does the poultry, pork and beef enjoyed by so many get from the farm to your table?  

The U.S. meat and poultry industry proudly processes, packages and delivers a variety of the meat products to us every day.  In fact, in the U.S. alone billions of pounds of meat is enjoyed each year. 

So, what path does it take to get to our plates?  It starts with teamwork on the farm. Farm families, agronomists, nutritionists, veterinarians … all working together to produce crops to raise healthy animals, like using high quality soy protein in livestock and poultry feed.   

Next, livestock and poultry are transported to packing plants where they’re processed into meat and undergo rigorous federal inspection to ensure its safe and properly labeled. Then it’s off to companies that specialize in preparing a variety of products – packaged meat, sausage, chicken nuggets or custom cuts.     

Critical to food safety and security is cold storage – facilities that keep these products frozen until they’re needed.  And When the time is right, our favorite beef, pork and poultry products are shipped across the U.S. and around the world … not only to grocery stores and restaurants … but to hotels, event centers, schools, hospitals, military bases and more. 

Whether it’s wings, steaks or bacon … the path to our plates is a complex one that involves essential steps along the way and millions of people dedicated to ensuring we don’t miss one bite.    

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A typical broiler – the name for a chicken grown for meat – takes an average of 47 days to reach its full size of six pounds. A new type of chicken now available takes a little more time to reach market.

To find out more about these slower growing chickens, we reached out to Dr. Sara Orlowski, Extension Poultry Specialist, and Casey Owens-Hanning, Professor of Poultry Science, with the University of Arkansas.

What is meant by “slow growth” chickens?

Dr. Orlowski: “The name says it all. Slow growth chickens grow slower than a normal, conventionally raised chicken. They gain less weight per day and take about 2 to 3 weeks longer to reach market weight. Certain breeds are selected for a slower growth rate or normal conventional birds are raised on a diet that isn’t as energy rich as a normal chicken diet, slowing the growth.”

Chickens today grow to a larger size in a shorter time than in years past. Why is that?

Dr. Orlowski: “A combination of genetic selection and breeding for growth and welfare traits and improvements made in housing conditions and feed have allowed for chickens to grow to a larger size in less time. It is not because of steroid usage (a common myth) as steroids have been illegal for use in poultry since the 1950s. Chickens are also bigger in recent years because of longer growout periods for some market segments.”

There have been concerns raised that modern chickens grow too quickly. Are they able to walk?

Dr. Orlowski: “Yes, conventional chickens are able to walk. While genetic selection has focused on growth rate and meat yield, they have also been selected for welfare traits such as leg health, skeletal structure and heart health. Mortality in the chicken houses has significantly decreased over the past 30 years as a result of the genetic selection programs used.”

“However, with any livestock species, health problems do exist but are much less frequent than they were in previous years. If a bird is unable to walk, they will be humanely euthanized to prevent further pain and suffering.”

Is there a difference in flavor or texture between slow growth chickens and conventional ones?

Dr. Owens- Hanning: “There are many factors that can go into development of flavor and texture in chicken meat. Tenderness can decrease as birds get older, so it is possible that slower growing birds can be tougher if grown longer to obtain adequate meat yield. Processing factors such as the time at which breast meat is taken off the frame of the carcass can impact tenderness.  Whole birds will typically be more tender than breast meat that is taken off the bird after chilling of the carcass, which is known as early deboning.”

Is there a nutritional difference between slow growth and conventional chicken?

Dr. Orlowski: “Differences in genetic selection between slow growth and conventional birds will cause slight changes in the nutritional profile of the meat produced, but not much. A majority of the nutritional differences that will occur between conventional and slow growth birds is a result of what those birds have been fed as a diet. If both conventional birds and slow growth birds are fed the same diet, there should be very little nutritional differences in the meat.”

Why is meat from slow growing chicken typically more expensive?

Dr. Orlowski: “It’s simple. Slow growth chicken takes more money to produce through feed and housing costs than conventionally raised chickens. The cost of production alone makes that slow growth chicken pricier at the grocery store.”

Chickens grow more quickly today than in years past because of selective breeding. Neither steroids or hormones are used in chickens. Slow growing chickens are from breeds that grow at a slower rate than most other birds and are an option available for shoppers.

The post What Are Slow Growing Chickens? appeared first on Best Food Facts.

We turned to Dr. Ty Lawrence, who has a doctorate in meat science and is a professor of animal science at West Texas A&M University, to get to the meat of the matter.

Aging of meat can sound strange, but it is a fairly simple process that occurs naturally in meat once it is processed. Aging of meat helps to make meat more tender which makes the consumer’s eating experience more enjoyable. “Aging meat is the process of allowing time to pass so that enzymes (specifically µ-calpain) can break down ultrastructural proteins, thus reducing the resistance to biting and chewing,” Dr. Lawrence said.

Aging is not a process used exclusively in one species since, “any muscle food that is uncooked and unfrozen is ‘aging’.” You can stop the aging process through cooking or freezing. “Once a product is cooked, those enzymes are denatured and are no longer functional,” he said. “The enzymes are not active while they are frozen – however, they do become active once the meat product is thawed.”

So what is the difference between dry-aging and wet-aging?

“Wet aging defines meat that was aged inside a vacuum package – the moisture is retained within the packaging,” Dr. Lawrence explains. “In contrast, dry-aged beef was aged outside a package and the cut (i.e. ribeye roll) lost moisture to the environment.”

The main difference in the two methods is a noticeable difference in flavor. “During the dry aging process, the fats oxidize and subtlety change in flavor. The lost moisture also causes a concentration of flavor, thus dry-aged meats most commonly have a more intense flavor profile,” he said.

Which process is more common? Dr. Lawrence says the beef you find on your grocery store shelf is most likely wet-aged.

“The majority of beef is wet-aged because it allows moisture to be retained. The moisture loss of dry-aged beef increases product costs and is typically reserved for high-end steaks,” he explained.

You can tell whether meat is dry-aged or wet-aged based on the price difference. “Dry-aged meat is almost always marketed as such and demands a higher price because the lost water weight must be compensated for in greater price,” Dr. Lawrence said.

Finally, curious about food safety, we wondered whether aging meat was safe.

“Yes, aging meat is a safe practice to ensure optimum eating experience.”

Aging is a natural process all meats go through to enhance the tenderness and flavor of the product. Dry-aging produces a more flavorful product but wet-aging is more commonly used because of the retained moisture and lower cost.

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My eggs don’t just have a blood spot but are all bloody inside, why? Do processors not use electronic candlers?

Dr. Bédécarrats: “Blood spots are the result of small blood vessels rupturing during the formation of the yolk and or blood leakage during ovulation that becomes part of the egg. The eggs on your table are normally not fertile, so blood spots do not correspond to early embryo development. Yes, eggs are checked with a variety of new equipment at the grading station, but this is mostly to check for cracks and defects. Note that the procedure of “candling” is when eggs are held above a light in a dark room. The light penetrates the egg and makes it possible to observe the inside of the egg. Candling is actually used to check embryo development in fertilized eggs, which is not necessary for eggs designed for consumption.”

Why do I crack open my eggs and find so many double yolks? Are farmers feeding their hens hormones?

Dr. Bédécarrats: “It is important to understand that no hormones are used in poultry production as genetic selection and improved nutrition are sufficient to increase production to meet consumer demand.

“Chickens, like most birds, have only one functional ovary and the growing yolks are organized in a hierarchal manner in the chicken, with the biggest one first. High producing birds lay an egg every day in a timely manner, and sometimes instead of having one single growing yolk, there may be two in the ovulation process. When this double ovulation occurs, both yolks end up in the egg. All the eggs on your table go through a grading station that checks for integrity, weight, size and shape. They are then organized in small, large and extra-large categories (double yolks will likely be in the extra-large group). Often the double yolks are sent to the “breakers market” for commercial use in bakeries or producing products such as mayonnaise.”

How is yolk colour determined? Are organic eggs darker or lighter in colour? Are free-range eggs darker or lighter?

Dr. Bédécarrats: “The colour of the yolk has nothing to do with them being produced organically, conventionally, or the chickens’ genetics – it is only dependant on the nutrition of the laying hen. The colouration is the result of pigments naturally found in feed that are accumulated in yolks and can be adjusted to accommodate for the consumer preferences of a specific market. For example, in North America a paler yolk is preferred compared to some Asian countries who prefer an orange coloured yolk. A diet based on wheat will give a lighter coloration while corn-based diets gives a slightly darker colour. If plant pigments such as carotenoids (which give carrots their orange colour) are part of the diet the egg yolk will become darker. When outdoor free-range chickens supplement their diets with foraged plants and insects, it could change the amount and type of pigment ingested.”

Here is a guide to differences between conventional, organic, free-range and cage-free eggs.

Why are my eggs runny when I crack them?

Dr. Bédécarrats:  “Although most laying hens have an unchanging egg white consistency, sickness and the age of the bird can impact the integrity of the egg. Commonly, the main factors of a watery egg white are the age and storage of the egg itself. An older egg, insufficient humidity or a high storage temperature can result in more watery eggs.”

Eggs are a natural food and variations occur because of differences in hens, their age or diet.  May is National Egg Month, so it’s a good time to crack one open. Vote in the poll for your favourite way to enjoy eggs!

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We turned to two trusted experts at the University of Arkansas Dr. Janeal Yancey, meat scientist, and Dr. Casey Owens-Hanning, poultry scientist, to learn about the different cuts of chicken and explore the best uses for each type.

White meat cuts are the breast, breast tenders and wings. Dark meat cuts are the drumstick and thighs. The color differences occur because they are two separate types of muscle.

Dr. Yancey: “Different muscles in the animal are used to do different things. Dark cuts, like the drumsticks and thighs, are used for holding the animal up and walking, so they are required to work for long, sustained periods of time. Whereas, white cuts like the breast and wings are required to perform short bursts of energy, like flapping their wings.”

The dark and white cuts of meat apply to both chicken and turkey. Because these muscles have different uses, they have different types of metabolism. In contrast, breast meat of duck is actually dark meat because ducks fly and use that muscle for long, sustained periods of time, Dr. Owens-Hanning said.

Dr. Yancey: “Dark meat cuts come from muscles that use more oxygen and have more iron. The iron is held in a protein called myoglobin, which gives it the darker color. White meat cuts come from muscles that metabolize energy with less oxygen, so they have less myoglobin and are lighter in color.”

All chicken is a good source or protein, as well as niacin, vitamin B6, biotin and vitamin B12. The experts say there is a slight difference in chicken nutrition between white and dark meat. Dark meat, because of the type of muscle, has slightly more iron. The biggest difference is the amount of calories and fat in the pieces.

Dr. Yancey: “Typically a boneless, skinless breast and breast tenders will have the least fat and fewest calories of any cuts of chicken.”

Dr. Owens-Hanning: “Dark meat will have more fat, but much of this comes from fat in between muscles. Since the leg meat (drumstick and thigh) are made up of multiple muscles, there is generally more fat than white meat. Furthermore, fat around the breast meat cut (one single muscle) is more easily trimmed than fat in between muscles found in the leg.”

Fat in chicken is most often found in the skin, she explained. So, boneless skinless breast (white meat) and skinless thighs (dark meat) are both relatively lean cuts of meat that are commonly found in supermarkets. Pieces with the skin, typically drumsticks and wings, have higher fat content.

How do the cuts of meat compare in taste and flavor?

Dr. Yancey: “Dark cuts like the drumstick and thigh have a little bit stronger flavor, mostly due to increased fat content because many flavor compounds are fat soluble. Additionally, the dark meat will tend to be juicier, again due to the increased fat content. White meat cuts are milder in flavor and may need flavors added to them, whereas dark meat cuts are able to stand on their own in the flavor department.”

When cooking chicken, keep in mind the type of meat to determine the best way to prepare it.

Dr. Owens-Hanning: “White meat can tend to dry out quickly so it is helpful to cook in a moist environment, such as baking or in a covered skillet, and to avoid overcooking. Using a meat thermometer to cook to 165 F, and not substantially more, is helpful with this.”

Did you know chicken wings are white meat?
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It seems that white meat is more popular. We asked the experts what might be the reasons for that.

Dr. Yancey: “I have heard a chef say, ‘a chicken breast is a chef’s blank canvas.’ It is the leanest and, even when boneless, it is a large cut that makes a nice serving size. Because of the mild flavor of the breast, it can easily be added to all types of dishes and take on a variety of flavors so it is very versatile.”

Dr. Owens-Hanning: “Breast meat tenders (white tenderloin muscle that lies underneath the breast muscle) are very popular due to the serving size and its use in fried foods. Fried foods are still very popular in fast food and food service.”

Dr. Yancey: “The other white meat cut is wings and they have been made popular by their size and the ‘buffalo wing’ craze in appetizers and snacks.”

To give you some ideas for dark meat dishes, we created a Pinterest board. It includes Dr. Yancey’s family recipe for pozole. Dr. Owens-Hanning shared her favorite ideas: “I like to marinate boneless skinless thighs in a teriyaki marinade and cook in a skillet. Another favorite of mine is cooking turkey breast cutlets in the skillet with whatever seasoning I have on hand.”

No matter what you’re cooking, keep food safety in mind. “Chicken needs to be cooked to 165 F regardless of it being dark meat or white meat,” Dr. Yancey said. “Always check the temperature with the thermometer inserted into the thickest part of the cut. For bone-in cuts, that may be next to the bone.”

White and dark chicken meat is due to different types of muscle. The cuts have different flavors and fat content and can be used in a variety of ways in cooking.

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To learn more, we turned to a trio of experts in the field, Dr. Sacit Bilgili, Professor Emeritus, Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University; Dr. Patricia Hester, Professor of Animal Sciences, Purdue University; and Dr. Bruce Webster, Professor and Extension Coordinator, Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia.

Some say chickens grown for meat put on weight too fast, which causes mobility problems for the bird. What’s your view of the situation?

Dr. Bilgili: The meat-type chickens (broilers) are bred specifically to grow fast and to build a lot of muscle. Growth rate and muscle yield are traits broilers are bred for. Breeding programs must balance weight and skeletal robustness. In fact, we have seen a steady improvement in leg problems since the 1980s. However, given the number of birds produced, there will always be a few birds with skeletal defects and gait problems. These birds should be culled from the rest of the flock. Culling sick and wounded birds humanely is a critical component of animal welfare programs that all farmers should adhere to.

Dr. Webster: It’s a problem that was more prevalent in past decades than it is now. It is related to rapid growth. Every large flock will have a few birds with impaired walking ability, but it should be a small percentage. I agree with Dr. Bilgili – birds like this should be humanely culled immediately.

Dr. Hester: Broilers today are bred for rapid growth rate and increased breast meat yields. These modern strains of broilers are physiologically and genetically distant from the ancestors of the Red Jungle Fowl. Not only have their genetics and physiology changed, but the behavior of these broiler chickens has also been altered. The metabolic demands for rapid growth in broilers are huge, leaving less energy for activity. Research shows broilers spend about 76 percent of their time sitting, 7 percent of their time standing idle on their feet, 3.5 percent standing preening, and 4.7 percent of their time standing eating. These chickens have enormous appetites feeding over 50 times in a 24-hour period. [1]

Are slower growing lines of chickens available?

Dr. Hester: Breeding companies do have slower growing lines of chickens. “Heritage lines” or slow-growing chickens are more active than the rapidly-growing genetic lines. They require more feed to gain weight, produce a smaller amount of breast meat, and can take twice as long to reach market weight. It costs the farmer more to raise these types of broilers, therefore the meat is more expensive at the grocery store or restaurant. It is suspected that the carbon footprint or impact on the environment would be less favorable for the slower-growing chickens. The current demand for these genetic lines are not high among purchasers of chicken meat, which is why farms primarily use the lines selected for rapid growth.

What are the trade-offs of raising the slower growing chickens?

Dr. Webster: Slower growing lines of chickens are available but they cannot compare to high-yielding strains of broilers for cost- and energy-efficient production of poultry meat products.  As Dr. Hester indicates, due to their inherent inefficiencies, they are more expensive to grow, resulting in more expensive products that would be harder for people with low incomes to purchase. In addition to the increased environmental impact due to their slower growth and poorer feed conversion efficiency, their higher activity levels would make it difficult to house them at the densities possible with modern broiler chickens, further increasing costs.

It is hard to imagine what it would take to supply the current need for poultry meat products using slow growing lines of chickens. Slower growing chickens have some appeal in free range or pastured poultry systems where their higher tendency to be active may stand them in good stead. Products from such systems appeal to some individuals who are willing and able to pay the extra price.

Dr. Bilgili: There are many genetic strains available to the producers to choose from based on their target markets and business plans. This includes fast and slow-growing broiler strains, as well as those with low or high breast muscle yields. Given the expansion of food service and growing consumer appetite for breast muscle (i.e., white meat), the market economics will necessitate the use of fast-growing strains.

What it means

Broiler chickens grow at different rates, depending on the breed and genetics of the birds. Farmers may choose to raise slower or faster growing birds, depending on several factors. Shoppers can also choose to purchase meat based on what aligns with their values.

_{[1] Weeks et al., 2000, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67: 111}

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Consumers have a lot of questions about how chickens are raised these days. Are chickens fed additional hormones? How about antibiotics? And what does the label farm-raised chickens really mean?

Best Food Facts checked in with experts Dr. Ken Macklin, with the Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University and Dr. Terry Etherton, with the Department of Dairy & Animal Science at Penn State University for answers.

Are hormones given to chickens raised for meat? If not, what is the difference between chicken labeled as hormone-free and chicken that does not carry that label?

Dr. Macklin:

No chickens raised in the U.S. or internationally, are given hormones. Feeding chickens additional hormones has been illegal in the U.S. since the 1950s, and it’s just not a cost-effective way to raise chickens. Why do some companies label chicken as hormone-free? Chickens have hormones like all living things, but there are no additional hormones labeled to any chickens, anywhere. There is no difference between chickens labeled as hormone-free and those that do not carry that label.

Dr. Etherton:

Hormones are not used in poultry production for broilers or egg layers. Every animal and plant that exists has natural hormones that they produce. The only difference between chicken labeled hormone-free and chicken not labeled as such is how the company chooses to market the product.  

What does the label farm-raised chicken mean? Aren’t all chickens raised on farms?

Dr. Etherton:

As far as I know it doesn’t have a specific definition. All chickens and animals raised for food production are raised on a farm of some sort, whether it’s large, small or in between.

Dr. Macklin:

They all are farm-raised. Some companies choose to market their products differently to appeal to their customer base. To be honest, every single chicken producer in the country could label their product as farm-raised in a literal sense.

Are farm-raised chickens raised with antibiotics?

Dr. Macklin:

The farm-raised chickens label really doesn’t differentiate, unless it says raised without antibiotics. They’ll all be antibiotic free because they went through a withdrawal period. The farm-raised label doesn’t mean they are raised without antibiotics.

Dr. Etherton:

There are some that are, but that is being phased out. Sub-therapeutic doses put in feed, primarily for broilers, to deal with sub-clinical health issues will be phased out.

Should I be concerned that eating chicken that was fed antibiotics might have antibiotic residue, or contribute to increased antibiotic resistance?

Dr. Etherton:

No, first, the dose is really, really small. Secondly, those antibiotics are typically not used in human health. Thirdly, if you just look at the population evidence, we’ve got people living longer than ever before and we’ve got the safest food supply in recorded history, and my view is that we shouldn’t be concerned.

Dr. Macklin:

Representatives from every flock are tested for antibiotic residue. That’s why they have the withdrawal period from seven to 14 days before the birds are processed, during which time the chickens are not given any antibiotics to make sure there is none in the meat. It’s a bit harder to say, whether antibiotic resistance is increasing. There are those that think livestock and poultry use of antibiotics contribute to antibiotic resistance, and there’s some compelling evidence that it may. On the flip side, there’s plenty of evidence to say that it doesn’t contribute to antibiotic resistance. As a scientist, I can’t say there is enough evidence to say that livestock and poultry use of antibiotics does or does not contribute to antibiotic resistance.

Will new regulations limiting the use of animal antibiotics important to human medicine affect how chickens are raised?

Dr. Macklin:

The new regulations will not affect companies with a veterinarian on staff at all. Even broiler companies that have a consulting vet shouldn’t see major disruptions because the new regulations require a veterinarian to write a prescription. It will reduce use of growth promotants, but it really won’t affect how chickens are raised. Chicken might cost a little more because they won’t grow as fast or as uniform, so production may not be as efficient.

Dr. Etherton:

Animals that periodically have sub-clinical health issues that affect growth rate can cause an economic problem. The industry will just have to deal with it. If, for example, feed efficiency worsens and it takes longer to grow animals to market weight, there will be an economic cost to consumers.

Will these new regulations mean chickens get sick more often?

Dr. Etherton:

I would expect that will be the case, but if it’s sub-clinical you might not see it, so it’s a fine gray line.

Dr. Macklin:

Yes, I know of a company that is completely antibiotic free, and they have a hard time combating illnesses. Veterinarians have a hard time not being able to treat animals when they get sick. Veterinarians take an oath to protect animal health and welfare, and they don’t like seeing these animals get sick. If the veterinarian works for a company producing antibiotic-free chicken, and they must treat a bird, it has to go to a different processing plant and is a logistical problem. If the chickens get sick more often, feed efficiency (amount of feed per lb. of gain) gets worse and the uniformity of the chicken suffers, it will be very challenging for producers.

Do I need to be concerned about eating chicken that might have been sick?

Dr. Macklin:

Assuming all safety procedures that are in place work properly, you will not be eating a sick chicken. There are a number of safeguards in place to prevent this. If the chickens are sick, they should not be sent from the farm to the processing plant. When the chickens get to the processing plant they are inspected by crews from the processing plant and USDA inspectors. While no process is 100 percent effective, I wouldn’t be too concerned about eating sick chicken, because there are a lot of safeguards in place. Also, you should inspect poultry you purchase at the grocery store and be sure to cook poultry to adequate temperatures. As long as you cook chicken properly it should be safe.

Dr. Etherton:

Animals that go into the food chain go through USDA-inspected plants, so there is a visual inspection of the carcass. With proper handling and cooking, food will be safe. For food safety, we have evolved the best system we’ve ever had, but even that system is not absent of risk.

Are there alternatives to antibiotics to keep chickens healthy?

Dr. Etherton:

I think best management practices and biosecurity methods, to attempt to keep out any pathogens, will be really important.

Dr. Macklin:

There are many alternatives. Pre-biotics feed the good bacteria and fight off the bad. Probiotics are your good bacteria, (similar to yogurt with the live cultures for humans) to fight off the bad bacteria. Then you have essential oils, organic acids and a whole slew of options producers can use to keep chickens healthy. The fault with many of them is they just are not as effective as antibiotics, which is why the poultry industry has used antibiotics for so long.

Is there a risk that the chicken I purchased from the grocery store may have been raised in the U.S., but processed in China?

Dr. Macklin:

There may be a risk but it is so miniscule, you shouldn’t worry about it. I would hazard a guess that 99.99 percent of chickens are raised and processed in the U.S. with 100 percent of chicken you find in the store being raised in the U.S. Also, any products shipped to the U.S. would have to meet our processing standards, meaning there are USDA inspectors on site watching the processors. The U.S. would not send live chickens – if anything, we would be sending carcasses to be further processed. Those steps are inspected by USDA, so steps are in place to make sure everything is up to our standards.

Dr. Etherton:

I’m not sure the economics would make sense to grow chickens in the U.S., ship them to China and have companies from China ship them back here, though traceability is a challenge in animal agriculture, so it’s hard to know definitively.

The post Farm-Raised Chickens: Answers on Antibiotics, Hormones and More appeared first on Best Food Facts.

What is one interesting fact about yourself?

I was afraid of birds until well after my undergraduate degree was complete! Funny for a poultry scientist!

What do you like to do in your free time?

I love to read and travel. 

What are you currently working on?

Turkey stocking density, beak treatments in egg production birds, broiler lighting programs. 

What are you passionate about related to your area of expertise?

Meat is part of my diet, but I believe that birds should have a good life while they are being grown. 

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