Arctic Apple is a trade name for a type of fruit that does not turn brown when exposed to air. Shoppers can buy packages of sliced Arctic Golden apples. The developer, Okanagan of British Columbia, Canada, released the apple in 2016 to a few stores in the Midwest. It will now be available at 400 stores throughout the Midwest and Southern California.

The fruit is interesting because it was created through genetic engineering. We got in touch with Dr. Sally Mackenzie at the Center for Plant Innovation at the University of Nebraska and Dr. Patrick Byrne, professor of plant breeding and genetics at Colorado State University, to peel back the layers and find out what’s underneath this apple.

How Does It Work?

“Arctic Apples are the first genetically engineered food in the US to use gene silencing via RNA interference to reduce production of a naturally occurring protein,” Dr. Byrne said. “In the case of Arctic Apples, the protein whose production is reduced is polyphenol oxidase (PPO), an enzyme responsible for oxidizing phenolic compounds and causing a browning reaction in apples after slicing or bruising.”

Dr. Mackenzie explained that scientists used a technology known as RNA interference to turn off a specific gene. “The gene that is being silenced in the apple is a polyphenol oxidase, an enzyme that participates in the oxidation process that causes browning and off flavor,” she said.

This infographic shows why fruit turns brown when exposed to oxygen. To “turn off” the enzyme, scientists developed a gene construction that the cell recognizes so that the targeted gene is affected.

“What is important to understand is that we are introducing segments of the plant’s own gene to trigger this targeting. Therefore, we are not introducing foreign DNA, but the plant’s own DNA to cause the change,” she said.

This process is “cisgenic” gene editing and is not the same as “transgenic” technology which introduces DNA from a different organism. That process has been used in GMO plants which farmers have grown for many years.

“This differs from genetically engineered herbicide-tolerant or insect-resistant corn, soybeans, and canola, in which a protein-encoding gene from another organism was introduced into plant cells and the novel protein is produced in the plant,” Dr. Byrne said.

Is It Safe?

Dr. Mackenzie emphasized that there are no health concerns with any GMO foods.

“In fact, transgenic technologies on the market have a perfect record for food safety, without a single documented incident of health concern as a consequence of GM technologies. The Arctic Apple presents no health concerns to date that could be reasoned from its design,” she said.

The FDA approved both the Golden Delicious and Granny Smith varieties of Arctic Apples. Foods derived from genetically engineered plants must meet the same legal and safety standards as foods derived from traditional plant breeding methods.

“The U.S. Food and Drug Administration evaluated extensive information provided by the crop’s developer, Okanagan Specialty Fruits. It found that differences in compositional analysis between Arctic and conventional apples ‘were small and would not adversely affect the nutritional quality of the apples or raise any safety concerns’,” Dr. Byrne said.

When novel proteins are introduced in foods, there is concern about the potential for allergic reaction, he said. “In this case, the main effect is suppression of a native gene, rather than introduction of a new gene for the non-browning effect. The only new protein expressed is a small amount of the enzyme made by the selectable marker gene, which has previously been found by FDA to pose no food safety concerns,” he said.

What’s Next?

Expect to see more cisgenic foods in the future.

“This product has shown that it is technically feasible to engineer a plant to suppress production of a protein, even for a multi-gene family of proteins like PPO,” Dr. Byrne said.

Dr. Mackenzie predicts a wide range of new products will make use of the technology.

“We will see more varied types of crop improvements and novel traits, since regulations of cisgenic traits are less onerous and so it will be more feasible to introduce improvements to more varied crops and with much more attention to consumer desire rather than profitability,” she said.

The Best Food Facts team got to sample Arctic Apples and you can see what we thought.

As Arctic Apples make their debut in the marketplace, they introduce cisgenic gene editing that uses the plant’s own DNA to express a specific trait. The non-browning apples could be the first of many foods that use this technique.

Originally published Jan. 31, 2017.

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Is genetically engineered salmon safe to eat?

Wager: “Yes, it is. Extensive testing over almost two decades has clearly demonstrated GE (genetically engineered) salmon has the same nutritional profile as non-GE-salmon of the same species.  The FDA in the United States and Health Canada have both stated GE salmon is as safe as non-GE salmon.”

Does it taste the same as other salmon?

Wager: “GE salmon has the same flavour, texture and nutritional aspects as the non-GE Atlantic salmon.  Each species of salmon tastes a little different owing to fat content, diet of the species etc.  Most consumers enjoy the flavour of all the species of salmon (five Pacific species and Atlantic salmon).”

Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist, Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis, explained in this Best Food Facts article how the fish was developed.

Dr. Van Eenennaam: “Over a quarter of a century ago, a construct that contains a snippet of DNA encoding a growth hormone from the king salmon, connected to DNA regulatory sequences from the ocean pout, was added to the eggs of an Atlantic salmon spawn. A fast-growing fish was selected out of that spawn and was shown to be carrying the construct in its DNA. Since that time, the construct has been stably transmitted through normal inheritance over many generations, in the same way that I passed on my blue eyes to my kids.”

Are there any benefits to the genetically engineered salmon?

Wager: “There are significant benefits to this salmon.  Because this salmon grows at twice the rate as non-GE Atlantic salmon, it will consume far less feed to obtain market weight.  Salmon feed has small finfish (anchovies and related fish) as a major component.  It is clear wild fisheries for small finfish are being overharvested.  Therefore, increasing the feed-to-meat conversion rate could help reduce the stress on wild finfish stocks.”

In addition, Wager noted that demand for salmon continues to rise and the new salmon can reduce the harvesting of wild salmon to ensure the continued survival of wild species.

“We cannot protect the wild salmon by eating wild salmon,” he said.

The AquaBounty salmon is farm raised. Can it still be a healthy food if it is farmed, instead of wild caught?

Wager: “Farmed fish is not only safe to eat, salmon is recommended to be a regular part of a healthy diet. Trace amounts of PCB’s and mercury (far below allowable limits) found in wild and farmed salmon are of zero health concern while the levels of heart-healthy omega 3 fatty acids are high in all salmon and highest in farmed Atlantic salmon. Salmon should be a regular part of the diet of pregnant women as the omega 3 fatty acids are essential for fetal neural development. The only significant difference between farmed fish and wild fish is the fat and protein content. Farmed salmon have a slightly higher fat content (which why they contain more omega 3 fatty acid) while wild salmon have a slightly higher protein content.”

Only significant difference between farmed fish and wild fish is protein and fat content.
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What measurements are put in place to prevent the salmon from cross-breeding with native species?

Wager: GE salmon are triploid (three sets of chromosomes compared to the normal two sets ).  Triploid organisms are sterile, meaning they cannot reproduce.  Other common triploid foods include bananas and seedless watermelons.  This added safeguard means that in the very unlikely event of a GE salmon escaping to the wild, it would not be able to breed with wild Atlantic salmon or any other species of salmon.

The salmon will not be labeled as genetically modified. Why?

Wager: “In Canada, we do not label food based on the breeding method used to create the food/crop.  Therefore there is no specific label to identify the GE salmon as being a product of genetic engineering.  Some feel this hides important facts from the consumer. In Canada we label food for nutritional content and potential allergen content.  Neither of these are different for GE salmon and therefore there is no unique label required for this food product.”

He also noted that although the AquaBounty salmon is the first genetically engineered animal food product on the market, Canadians have been consuming foods derived from GE crops for over 20 years.

Wager: “There has never been a documented case of harm from consuming food derived from GE crops.  The first GE crops dealt mainly with traits important to the farmer: herbicide tolerance for weed control and insect resistance to reduce insecticide use and yield loss.  GE crops allowed farmers to produce more food on the same land with less environmental impact.”

What might this mean for other genetically engineered foods to be introduced?

Wager: “With each year the public is learning more about how GE crops and derived foods are contributing to safe affordable food for Canadians.  As the public becomes more familiar with these food products the market will increase the offerings.  There are a great many wonderful traits with environmental, economic and health benefits that are working their way through the regulatory system.

“Today we are seeing a new set of GE crops with consumer-oriented traits coming on the market.  Better flavour, enhanced nutritional content, bruise resistance, will soon increase the variety of GE crops in the marketplace.  In the more distant future GE products like artificial meat, hypoallergenic peanuts, gluten-free wheat etc., may enjoy significant market share.”

Genetically modified salmon are now on the market in Canada. The animals grow more quickly, using less feed so they are a sustainable option. The salmon is safe to eat and offers the nutritional benefits of omega 3 fatty acids. This is the first genetically modified animal food product and may be the first of many that will provide benefits for consumers.

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A new pink pineapple, developed through genetic engineering, has been approved by the FDA.

The variety has pink flesh instead of yellow and the developers say it tastes sweeter.

The pink pineapple, made by Del Monte Fresh Produce, simply has some genes toned down to keep the flesh of the fruit pinker and sweeter, the FDA said in its announcement. “(Del Monte) submitted information to the agency to demonstrate that the pink flesh pineapple is as safe and nutritious as its conventional counterparts.”

The new pineapple will produce lower levels of the enzymes that occur in pineapple that convert the pink pigment lycopene to the yellow pigment beta carotene, said the FDA. Lycopene is the pigment that makes tomatoes red and watermelons pink, so it is commonly and safely consumed. Find out more facts about pineapple.

The company will label the product “extra sweet pink flesh pineapple.” It is known as Rosé and will be grown in Costa Rica.

Every genetically-engineered crop goes through extensive testing to ensure it is safe and has to be approved by the FDA, USDA and EPA before they can enter the food supply. The new pineapple joins a growing list of precedent-setting GMO foods. Genetically-engineered salmon received FDA approval last year. GMO apples and potatoes have also been deemed safe for human consumption in recent years.

With the passing of standardized food labeling regulations last summer, these products will need to be labeled as a genetically modified food item at the retail level. USDA is working toward determining how these labels will come to be over the next few years.

The pineapple received FDA approval in December. It is not known when the food will be available for purchase.

This post was originally published Jan. 24, 2017.

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Three new varieties of potatoes that are resistant to late blight have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The potatoes were developed using a disease resistance gene from an Argentine variety of potato that has a natural defense to the disease. Expert Dr. David Douches, director of the Potato Breeding and Genetics Program at Michigan State University, gave us some insight into what this means.

“Late blight is caused by Phytophthora infestans. which is a fungus-like organism, and it is the most costly potato disease in the world. It will infect the foliage and tubers, killing the plants and rotting the tubers,” he said.

Late blight was responsible for the Irish Potato Famine in the 1840s. Potatoes were a significant part of the diet of Irish working classes and the disease decimated farmers’ crops. At least 1 million people died as a result and at least 1 million immigrated to North America, as well as Australia and Europe.

The Irish brought their love of potatoes with them and the starchy vegetables continue to be very popular. The average American eats 114 pounds every year. Potatoes are considered the fourth food staple crop in the world behind corn, rice and wheat. Late blight continues to be a problem, especially in wetter areas, and growers use fungicides to prevent the disease. The new potatoes mean better yields and less use of fungicide on potato fields.

“The farmers benefit with reduced disease risk and potential for a higher quality crop when grown under disease-risk conditions. The farm environment can benefit because of the need for less fungicide applications during the season,” Dr. Douches explained.

Since the varieties, which were developed by J.R. Simplot Co., were determined to be safe by  USDA/APHIS, the FDA and EPA, farmers are expected to plant them this year and shoppers will be able to purchase them. “These potatoes could end up in the fresh market and or the chip-processing market. Consumers should like the improved quality that can come from these potatoes,” Dr. Douches said.

The potatoes are known by the trade name Innate and have another genetic trait. They do not turn brown when exposed to air. Dr. Douches said this is achieved through, “silencing of the polyphenol oxidase gene that reduces the browning of cut or peeled tubers.” This process is similar to the science used to create Arctic Apples.

We asked if these new varieties are considered GMOs – genetically modified organisms. “The potatoes are genetically modified but I refer to them as Biotech 2.0. They contain genes that come from the potato or related species. So the genes are not foreign,” Dr. Douches said.

He described how that process works to protect against late blight. “The potato can defend itself from P. infestans (blight) if the right R-gene or combination of R-genes are expressed in the foliage,” he said. “There is a battle between the plants and P. infestans: for the plants to have R-genes that recognize the pathogen and the pathogen evolving to evade the R-gene recognition.”

Using the latest precision science to solve a very old problem highlights the potential of genetic engineering to help grow better food.

“These are great potatoes to grow and consume and also process into chips and fries. These potatoes should help dispel the negative myths associated with GM foods,” Dr. Douches said.

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We wanted to know more about this technology, so we reached out to Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist in Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis, for some insight into what this technology is and why it’s being used on some foods.

What is CRISPR?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: CRISPR stands for “Clustered Regulatory Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats.” It refers to a specific type of gene editing that can precisely edit or change the genetic code, or DNA, within a specific living animal or plant. In the same way that spell check identifies and corrects single-letter errors in a word or grammar errors in a sentence, gene editing can be used to identify and change the letters that make up the genetic code.

Is gene editing the same as genetic modification/engineering?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Gene editing is different from traditional genetic engineering. Continuing with the analogy of a word processor, genetic engineering enables a gene sequence of “foreign DNA” to be “cut and pasted” from one species to another; typically, the location where the new DNA sequence inserts into the genome is random. Gene editing can, delete, or replace a series of letters in the genetic code at a very precise location in the genome. If editing is used to add some letters, they may or may not be a sequence from the same species.

What can CRISPR gene-editing technology be used for?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: The basic idea behind gene editing is the ability to introduce, delete or replace letters in the genetic code, which could be helpful in correcting certain diseases and disorders, or for selecting specific desired traits (for example, a mushroom that doesn’t brown).

Are there any regulations surrounding the use of this technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires all food placed on the market to be safe irrespective of the breeding method that was used to produce that food. That requirement is inescapable. Plants and animals produced using conventional breeding techniques require no special pre-market safety review, although they are required to be safe. In the case of plants where biotechnology has been used in the breeding process, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Biotechnology Regulatory Services has a specific “Am I Regulated?” process to determine if the new plant variety may pose a pest risk to plants. If it does not, then it is not considered a regulated article. The response of APHIS to other “Am I Regulated” letters is available here.

With regard to animals, at the current time it is unclear whether gene editing will be formally regulated by the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine as a “New Animal Drug,” as is the case with animals that have been produced using genetic engineering. Animal breeding per se is not regulated by the federal government, although it is illegal to sell an unsafe food product regardless of the breeding method that was used to produce it. Gene editing does not necessarily introduce any foreign genetic DNA or “transgenic sequences” into the genome, and many of the changes produced would not be distinguishable from naturally-occurring variations. As such, many applications will not fit the classical definition of genetic engineering.

What is CRISPR’s potential impact to food and agriculture?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Gene editing could be used to target many different traits in agricultural breeding programs. For example, it has already been used to produce genetically hornless Holstein dairy cattle and to generate pigs that show resilience to devastating diseases such as African Swine Fever. Recently, a paper was published showing that gene-edited pigs were protected from Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) virus, a particularly devastating disease of the global pork industry. It has also been used in plant breeding to produce non-browning mushrooms by knocking out the gene responsible for producing the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which causes browning in some fruits when they are exposed to air, but otherwise lacks any indispensable role in plant metabolism.

Are there any risks associated with use of the technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: There are potential risks and hazards associated with any technology. In this case, the most obvious potential hazard might be off-target changes in the genome — meaning a change in the DNA code at a location other than that targeted. This same hazard is associated with conventional breeding techniques like mutagenesis. In fact, gene editing is much more precise than random mutagenesis, which has been used in the development of over 3,000 varieties of plants. Random naturally-occurring mutations happen in every species, including our own, every generation. They are the basis of the genetic variation we see in natural populations and are in fact the driving force of evolution and agricultural breeding programs.

Why was CRISPR used on mushrooms?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: According to the letter submitted to the USDA, CRISPR was used to produce non-browning mushrooms. As previously mentioned, the researched inactivated the gene that codes for polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which causes browning in some fruits when they are exposed to air. A similar naturally-occurring mutation in the same PPO gene happened in grapes in Australia in 1962 in a grape line called “Sultana.” The fruits were pale and exhibited a significant decrease in PPO activity and were used to produce golden sultanas. This PPO enzyme is also the one that was turned off in the Innate non-browning potato and the Arctic Apple. Such non-browning food products will help reduce food waste.

What do consumers need to know about foods made using CRISPR technology — mushrooms, for example? Are they safe?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: As with all breeding methods, the safety of food derived from new varieties depends on the attributes of the end product, not the breeding method that was used to derive them. It is illegal to sell an unsafe food product regardless of the breeding method that was used to produce it. Every meal we have ever consumed contains genetic variation. A bite of apple has a very different protein and DNA makeup than a bite of banana. The digestive process breaks down DNA irrespective of its origin — and DNA is GRAS (generally regarded as safe), which is good as ALL food contains DNA. The sequence of the DNA does not matter from a food safety perspective. When turning off a protein like the PPO gene, there is no new protein being introduced into the mushroom — the plant just does not produce the PPO protein that is normally consumed and digested when people eat mushrooms. Breeders are often changing the DNA and protein composition of common plants and animals — a Golden Delicious apple has a different composition than a Granny Smith apple, for example, but they are both safe to eat.

What other foods could benefit from this technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Really, all domesticated plant and animal breeding programs could benefit from breeding methods that enable breeders to more precisely improve key traits like disease resistance and resilience. Such improvement are likely to be increasingly valuable given projected climate variability and extreme weather events.

_{The image “DNA” by Caroline Davis2010 is licensed under CC BY 2.0.}

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To help answer these questions, we talked with Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist, Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis.

How does genetically engineered salmon differ from conventional salmon?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

The AquAdvantage salmon is a fast-growing Atlantic salmon. It is able to reach market weight in about half the time it takes conventional salmon and, as a result, requires about 20 percent less feed. This means a fillet of salmon can be produced more efficiently using less feed, decreasing the environmental footprint.

Why was this salmon genetically engineered?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

This salmon was designed to continuously grow throughout the year, rather than decreasing growth in the winter months. Wild salmon typically grow more slowly due to feed scarcity in the colder winter months. AquAdvantage is growing its salmon in tanks, and will provide adequate feed to allow for consistent growth.

Does GE salmon offer any benefits?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

This salmon enables a more sustainable approach to the production of Atlantic salmon. Currently, Atlantic salmon makes up over half of the salmon consumed in the U.S., and it is farmed in ocean-based net pens and imported from countries including Scotland, Chile and Canada. These facilities have some deleterious environmental impacts including pollution, escapement and the transmission of disease and pests from wild fish to the cultured fish, and vice versa. The efficiency of AquAdvantage allows for land-based production of Atlantic salmon to become a cost-effective proposition. The company is planning to grow the fish in contained tanks, which will preclude some of the environmental concerns associated with net pen-based aquaculture.

AquAdvantage Salmon enables a more sustainable approach to the production of Atlantic salmon.
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How is the salmon genetically engineered?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

Over a quarter of a century ago, a construct that contains a snippet of DNA encoding a growth hormone from the king salmon connected to DNA regulatory sequences from the ocean pout was added to the eggs of an Atlantic salmon spawn. A fast-growing fish was selected out of that spawn and was shown to be carrying the construct in its DNA. Since that time, the construct has been stably transmitted through normal inheritance over many generations, in the same way that I passed on my blue eyes to my kids.

Are there any safety concerns regarding consumption of the GE salmon?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

The salmon is basically a fast-growing fish. This is a trait that is selected in many breeding programs. Because this particular line was produced through genetic engineering, it underwent a mandatory evaluation by the FDA. They found the fish was as safe to eat as conventional salmon and, under the proposed land-based growing conditions at a farm in the highlands of Panama, posed minimal risk to the environment. As with all technologies, risks need to be considered in comparison to existing production systems, and weighed against benefits. There are some known risks associated with existing production systems, such as the fertile lines of selected lines of Atlantic salmon escaping from ocean net pen-based aquacultural systems.

_{The image “Salmon” by Ján Sokoly is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.}

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