Americans enjoy chicken and may be curious to learn more about them, so we put together a fun quiz to test your knowledge. Thank you to poultry experts Dr. Sara Orlowski , at the University of Arkansas for lending her expertise.

True or false: Broilers are raised in cages.

Answer: False.

“Broilers are raised in open floor, environmentally controlled houses,” Dr. Orlowski said.

Broiler is the name for chickens raised for meat. Egg-laying hens – called layers – are often kept in cages, while some are raised “cage free.” Farmers care for the birds and adjust the barns as needed.

“The environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity and lighting are maintained and regulated throughout the birds’ life to allow for optimal comfort of the bird and efficient growth.”

Some chickens are raised “free-range,” which means that the birds must have access to the outdoors.

“That does not mean however, that the chicken is raised completely outside. It still has a barn it can stay in with access to feed and water,” she said. Being outside, however, has some risks for the birds. “Free range production can lead to an increased risk for disease in chickens and allows for the possibility of predators such as hawks or foxes to gain access to the birds.”

True or False: Chickens are amazing.

Answer: True.

Chickens have an incredible ability to grow quickly using little feed.

That is why chicken is often an affordable option in the meat case.

“Chickens are very efficient in converting feed to muscle relative to beef or pork, and feed costs account for the majority of the costs associated with meat production,” Dr. Orlowski said. “Processing of chickens is also highly automated and therefore, highly efficient.”

The food the birds eat is formulated to provide a balanced diet.

“The diet consists of corn (a source of carbohydrates or energy), soybean meal (a source of protein), a fat as well as the proper amount of vitamins and minerals necessary for growth. A chick’s diet is different from the diet of a chicken ready to process so throughout the life cycle of the bird, they can be fed three to five diets formulated to meet the need of the chicken as it grows,” Dr. Orlowski said.

True or false: Chickens are given hormones.

Answer: False.

“The only hormones that will be present in the chicken or eggs that you buy at the store will be the ones naturally produced by the bird making all poultry products, whether labeled or not, ‘hormone-free,’” Dr. Orlowski said.

Chickens are not given steroids, either. The Food and Drug Administration prohibits the use of both hormones and steroids in poultry.

True or False: Chickens are genetically modified.

Answer: False

Today’s chickens reach market weight more quickly than chickens raised years ago. Is it because they are GMOs? The experts say no.

“No recombinant gene technologies such as introduction of genetic material from another species or rearranging of specific genes are used in chicken production,” Dr. Orlowski.

Then how do they grow to a larger size in less time?

“Chickens are specifically bred or genetically selected for traits such as growth rate, meat yield and welfare traits. Selection of chickens is based off of individual breeding values from various traits and their ability to pass those traits on to their offspring,” she said.

Chickens are being treated in new ways to prevent disease.

Answer: True.

Just like humans, chickens sometimes get sick and may be given antibiotics to treat or prevent disease. The most common disease they are treated for is called coccidiosis.

“This disease affects the gut environment of the chicken resulting in poor growth and even death,” Dr. Orlowski said.

However, some producers have decided not to use antibiotics.

“In recent years, based on demand from consumers, most chicken companies are choosing to produce their chickens ‘antibiotic free-ABF’ or ‘no-antibiotics ever-NAE’ resulting in a slight rise in mortality. Novel methods for controlling diseases such as coccidiosis are being evaluated by companies and universities worldwide.”

Is it safe to eat meat from chickens that have been given antibiotics?

“Yes! Every antibiotic that is approved for use in chickens also has a withdrawal time. A withdrawal time is the amount of time the chicken needs to break down the antibiotic so that is no longer in its system. If a chicken is given antibiotics for any reason, it will not be processed for human consumption until the withdrawal period for that specific antibiotic is complete,” Dr. Orlowski said.

While we may not be able to answer why the chicken crossed the road, these facts help us to know more about how chickens are raised.

The post Test Your Chicken Knowledge appeared first on Best Food Facts.

What are the health risks of eating GMO foods? Are GMO foods less nutritious? Do they cause allergies? What foods are GMOs? To address our reader’s concerns, we put these questions before a panel of experts:

• Peggy Lemaux, Cooperative Extension Specialist at the University of California – Berkeley
• Wayne Parrott, Professor in the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences University of Georgia, University of Georgia
• Bruce Chassy, Professor of Food Microbiology and Nutritional Sciences; Executive Associate Director of the Biotechnology Center; Assistant Dean for Science Communications in the College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois – Urbana/Champaign
• Martina Newell-McGloughlin, Director, University of California Systemwide Biotechnology Research and Education Program (UCBREP), Co-Director, National Institutes of Health Training Program in Biomolecular Technology, Co-Director, NSF IGERT CREATE Training Program, and Adjunct Associate Professor, Department of Plant Pathology at the University of California-Davis.

Are GMO fruits and vegetables less nutritious than non-GMO or organic fruits and vegetables?

Dr. Lemaux: “That’s a good question! Foods that have been genetically modified undergo testing for safety, health and nutrient value. The nutritional value of GMO foods is tested and compared against non-GMO foods. Numerous studies have shown no nutritional differences between commercially available GMO and non-GMO foods. In fact, genetic modification can improve the nutritional content of some foods, for example, low linoleic acid canola oil that can reduce trans-fat content. In these cases, the foods must be labeled to show the nutritional differences according to FDA policy.”

Dr. Parrott: “Before any GMO can come to market, it must undergo extensive testing to ensure that the content of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients is not inadvertently altered during the final process. For every study that finds nutritional superiority in organic produce, another finds it in GMO produce. The bottom line is to make sure you eat as many fresh fruits and vegetables as you can, regardless of whether they are organic or GMO.”

Dr. Chassy: “Recent reviews have concluded that there is no difference in nutrient quality between organic and non-organic produce. Some disagree because they believe (not based on science, but rather, personal beliefs) that organic matter derived from living organisms provides a vital life force to crops that cannot be supplied by inorganic chemical fertilizers. This is just not the case when we look at this based on research. This thinking has transitioned into a belief by some that organic is more nutritious, which has simply not been proven.”

Do GMOs cause allergies?

Dr. Lemaux: “GM foods that are in the grocery stores (commercially available) are not likely to cause allergic reactions any more so than non-GM foods. Food allergies are nothing new, and under the FDA’s biotechnology food policy, GMO foods must be labeled as such if the genetic information comes from one of the eight most common allergy-causing foods, unless the new food is shown to be allergy-free. Those foods are dairy, eggs, fish, shellfish, tree nuts, wheat, soybeans, and peanuts. All GMO foods undergo food safety testing that focuses on the source of the gene or protein product that has been introduced into the food. Even so, no food product can be deemed 100% safe, whether it be conventional (non-GMO), GMO or organic. For example, peanuts can cause severe allergies regardless of how they’re grown – so they would be considered unsafe for some people.”

Dr. Chassy: “Food allergies dramatically change the lives of people who have them. Fortunately, only a very small percentage of people are allergic to any one food. This is because food allergy is almost always caused by specific proteins present in the offending food, but the great majority of proteins (>99.9999+%) that we consume do not cause allergies. It is important to stress that there is no a prior reason to believe that GM foods might cause allergies, and to date, none has.”

Dr. Newell-McGloughlin: “No. In fact, the work that is being done in GMO research can, in fact, reduce allergies. There are very specific sets of indicators that determine whether a specific protein in GMOs would cause an allergic response. Those proteins that are difficult to digest cause an allergic response, causing the body to create antibodies to them. This can happen with a number of proteins, but there is nothing inherent about biotech products that would cause allergies.”

Are there health risks associated with consuming GMOs?

Dr. Newell-McGloughlin: “No. GMOs are more thoroughly tested than any product produced in the history of agriculture. We use many methods to introduce desired traits – to try to get specific characteristics into our crops. With GMOs, they are thoroughly tested before any product is released into the marketplace. In all the risk assessments in over 15 years of field research and 30 years of laboratory research, there hasn’t been a single instance where there was a health risk associated with a GMO product.”

Science Magazine: U.S expert panel says genetically modified crops are safe to eat

Some believe that the FDA’s research on GMOs’ impacts on health is flawed. What are your thoughts on that?

Dr. Newell-McGloughlin: “In the U.S., GMOs are more highly regulated than any other methods to introduce traits into crops today, by three different agencies:

• Food and Drug Administration
• United States Department of Agriculture: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)
• Environmental Protection Agency

The primary body that regulates the commercialization of GMOs is USDA-APHIS. This is a lengthy process which, for most regulation, takes several years to determine whether approval will be granted. No other product or system that is used to introduce desired traits undergoes the same level of scrutiny as do the products of modern biotechnology.”

Dr. Parrott: “Although there is no indication that the FDA has made a wrong call on any GM product, the point remains that we are in a global economy.  Thus, it is not just FDA who approves these foods, but also FoodCanada, the European Food Safety Authority, the Food Standards for Australia and New Zealand, and various agencies in Japan and Korea, among others.  It is one thing to say that FDA’s procedures might be flawed; it is another to say every major food safety agency is flawed.  Thus far, I am not aware of any situation whereby one agency gave a GM product a clean bill of health and another failed to do so.”

Dr. Chassy: “There was never any scientific reason to believe that foods produced using biotechnology present any new, different or special hazards.  From a scientific perspective, they pose even fewer hazards than the conventionally bred crops that we have been eating safely for millennia.  The pre-market regulatory review is intended to ensure the consumer that GM foods have been checked for safety before they go to market. In the heat of the argument, we often lose sight of the fact that every expert analysis of the safety of GM crops has concluded that they are as safe as any other crop.”

In summary, GMO foods are just as safe to consume as conventional, organic, or non-GMO foods.

For additional resources:

GMO Answers

Genetic Literacy Project

Originally published Aug. 8, 2011

The post GMOs and Human Health appeared first on Best Food Facts.

Arctic Apple is a trade name for a type of fruit that does not turn brown when exposed to air. Shoppers can buy packages of sliced Arctic Golden apples. The developer, Okanagan of British Columbia, Canada, released the apple in 2016 to a few stores in the Midwest. It will now be available at 400 stores throughout the Midwest and Southern California.

The fruit is interesting because it was created through genetic engineering. We got in touch with Dr. Sally Mackenzie at the Center for Plant Innovation at the University of Nebraska and Dr. Patrick Byrne, professor of plant breeding and genetics at Colorado State University, to peel back the layers and find out what’s underneath this apple.

How Does It Work?

“Arctic Apples are the first genetically engineered food in the US to use gene silencing via RNA interference to reduce production of a naturally occurring protein,” Dr. Byrne said. “In the case of Arctic Apples, the protein whose production is reduced is polyphenol oxidase (PPO), an enzyme responsible for oxidizing phenolic compounds and causing a browning reaction in apples after slicing or bruising.”

Dr. Mackenzie explained that scientists used a technology known as RNA interference to turn off a specific gene. “The gene that is being silenced in the apple is a polyphenol oxidase, an enzyme that participates in the oxidation process that causes browning and off flavor,” she said.

This infographic shows why fruit turns brown when exposed to oxygen. To “turn off” the enzyme, scientists developed a gene construction that the cell recognizes so that the targeted gene is affected.

“What is important to understand is that we are introducing segments of the plant’s own gene to trigger this targeting. Therefore, we are not introducing foreign DNA, but the plant’s own DNA to cause the change,” she said.

This process is “cisgenic” gene editing and is not the same as “transgenic” technology which introduces DNA from a different organism. That process has been used in GMO plants which farmers have grown for many years.

“This differs from genetically engineered herbicide-tolerant or insect-resistant corn, soybeans, and canola, in which a protein-encoding gene from another organism was introduced into plant cells and the novel protein is produced in the plant,” Dr. Byrne said.

Is It Safe?

Dr. Mackenzie emphasized that there are no health concerns with any GMO foods.

“In fact, transgenic technologies on the market have a perfect record for food safety, without a single documented incident of health concern as a consequence of GM technologies. The Arctic Apple presents no health concerns to date that could be reasoned from its design,” she said.

The FDA approved both the Golden Delicious and Granny Smith varieties of Arctic Apples. Foods derived from genetically engineered plants must meet the same legal and safety standards as foods derived from traditional plant breeding methods.

“The U.S. Food and Drug Administration evaluated extensive information provided by the crop’s developer, Okanagan Specialty Fruits. It found that differences in compositional analysis between Arctic and conventional apples ‘were small and would not adversely affect the nutritional quality of the apples or raise any safety concerns’,” Dr. Byrne said.

When novel proteins are introduced in foods, there is concern about the potential for allergic reaction, he said. “In this case, the main effect is suppression of a native gene, rather than introduction of a new gene for the non-browning effect. The only new protein expressed is a small amount of the enzyme made by the selectable marker gene, which has previously been found by FDA to pose no food safety concerns,” he said.

What’s Next?

Expect to see more cisgenic foods in the future.

“This product has shown that it is technically feasible to engineer a plant to suppress production of a protein, even for a multi-gene family of proteins like PPO,” Dr. Byrne said.

Dr. Mackenzie predicts a wide range of new products will make use of the technology.

“We will see more varied types of crop improvements and novel traits, since regulations of cisgenic traits are less onerous and so it will be more feasible to introduce improvements to more varied crops and with much more attention to consumer desire rather than profitability,” she said.

The Best Food Facts team got to sample Arctic Apples and you can see what we thought.

As Arctic Apples make their debut in the marketplace, they introduce cisgenic gene editing that uses the plant’s own DNA to express a specific trait. The non-browning apples could be the first of many foods that use this technique.

Originally published Jan. 31, 2017.

The post How Did Science Create An Apple That Does Not Brown? appeared first on Best Food Facts.

Is genetically engineered salmon safe to eat?

Wager: “Yes, it is. Extensive testing over almost two decades has clearly demonstrated GE (genetically engineered) salmon has the same nutritional profile as non-GE-salmon of the same species.  The FDA in the United States and Health Canada have both stated GE salmon is as safe as non-GE salmon.”

Does it taste the same as other salmon?

Wager: “GE salmon has the same flavour, texture and nutritional aspects as the non-GE Atlantic salmon.  Each species of salmon tastes a little different owing to fat content, diet of the species etc.  Most consumers enjoy the flavour of all the species of salmon (five Pacific species and Atlantic salmon).”

Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist, Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis, explained in this Best Food Facts article how the fish was developed.

Dr. Van Eenennaam: “Over a quarter of a century ago, a construct that contains a snippet of DNA encoding a growth hormone from the king salmon, connected to DNA regulatory sequences from the ocean pout, was added to the eggs of an Atlantic salmon spawn. A fast-growing fish was selected out of that spawn and was shown to be carrying the construct in its DNA. Since that time, the construct has been stably transmitted through normal inheritance over many generations, in the same way that I passed on my blue eyes to my kids.”

Are there any benefits to the genetically engineered salmon?

Wager: “There are significant benefits to this salmon.  Because this salmon grows at twice the rate as non-GE Atlantic salmon, it will consume far less feed to obtain market weight.  Salmon feed has small finfish (anchovies and related fish) as a major component.  It is clear wild fisheries for small finfish are being overharvested.  Therefore, increasing the feed-to-meat conversion rate could help reduce the stress on wild finfish stocks.”

In addition, Wager noted that demand for salmon continues to rise and the new salmon can reduce the harvesting of wild salmon to ensure the continued survival of wild species.

“We cannot protect the wild salmon by eating wild salmon,” he said.

The AquaBounty salmon is farm raised. Can it still be a healthy food if it is farmed, instead of wild caught?

Wager: “Farmed fish is not only safe to eat, salmon is recommended to be a regular part of a healthy diet. Trace amounts of PCB’s and mercury (far below allowable limits) found in wild and farmed salmon are of zero health concern while the levels of heart-healthy omega 3 fatty acids are high in all salmon and highest in farmed Atlantic salmon. Salmon should be a regular part of the diet of pregnant women as the omega 3 fatty acids are essential for fetal neural development. The only significant difference between farmed fish and wild fish is the fat and protein content. Farmed salmon have a slightly higher fat content (which why they contain more omega 3 fatty acid) while wild salmon have a slightly higher protein content.”

Only significant difference between farmed fish and wild fish is protein and fat content.
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What measurements are put in place to prevent the salmon from cross-breeding with native species?

Wager: GE salmon are triploid (three sets of chromosomes compared to the normal two sets ).  Triploid organisms are sterile, meaning they cannot reproduce.  Other common triploid foods include bananas and seedless watermelons.  This added safeguard means that in the very unlikely event of a GE salmon escaping to the wild, it would not be able to breed with wild Atlantic salmon or any other species of salmon.

The salmon will not be labeled as genetically modified. Why?

Wager: “In Canada, we do not label food based on the breeding method used to create the food/crop.  Therefore there is no specific label to identify the GE salmon as being a product of genetic engineering.  Some feel this hides important facts from the consumer. In Canada we label food for nutritional content and potential allergen content.  Neither of these are different for GE salmon and therefore there is no unique label required for this food product.”

He also noted that although the AquaBounty salmon is the first genetically engineered animal food product on the market, Canadians have been consuming foods derived from GE crops for over 20 years.

Wager: “There has never been a documented case of harm from consuming food derived from GE crops.  The first GE crops dealt mainly with traits important to the farmer: herbicide tolerance for weed control and insect resistance to reduce insecticide use and yield loss.  GE crops allowed farmers to produce more food on the same land with less environmental impact.”

What might this mean for other genetically engineered foods to be introduced?

Wager: “With each year the public is learning more about how GE crops and derived foods are contributing to safe affordable food for Canadians.  As the public becomes more familiar with these food products the market will increase the offerings.  There are a great many wonderful traits with environmental, economic and health benefits that are working their way through the regulatory system.

“Today we are seeing a new set of GE crops with consumer-oriented traits coming on the market.  Better flavour, enhanced nutritional content, bruise resistance, will soon increase the variety of GE crops in the marketplace.  In the more distant future GE products like artificial meat, hypoallergenic peanuts, gluten-free wheat etc., may enjoy significant market share.”

Genetically modified salmon are now on the market in Canada. The animals grow more quickly, using less feed so they are a sustainable option. The salmon is safe to eat and offers the nutritional benefits of omega 3 fatty acids. This is the first genetically modified animal food product and may be the first of many that will provide benefits for consumers.

The post Genetically Engineered Salmon On the Market appeared first on Best Food Facts.

Corn (field & sweet)
The GM version of field corn protects the crop against corn rootworms and the Asian corn borer. Like GM field corn, GM sweet corn also protects the crop against destructive pests.

Soybeans
The GM soybean plant is resistant to pests and disease as well as being tolerant of herbicides that are most effective, allowing for less herbicide use overall.

Cotton
GM cotton requires fewer pesticides and protects against the cotton bollworm.

Canola
Canola has been modified through biotechnology to make it tolerant to some herbicides. This allows for a reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed control. The modified plant also has resistance to pests and fungus.

Alfalfa
The GM version of alfalfa is tolerant of some herbicides, allowing for a reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed control.

Sugar Beets
The GM sugar beet has increased tolerance to some herbicides, allowing for a reduced amount of chemicals needed for weed control. GM sugar beets also have virus and pest resistance traits.

Papaya
The GM version of papaya makes the plant resistant to the prevalent Papaya Ringspot Virus.

Squash
GM squash has traits that improve the plant’s defense against viruses.

Arctic Apple
Developed by Okanagan Specialty Fruits of British Columbia, Canada, this new fruit was developed by turning off the enzyme in apples that cause them to brown when cut, bruised or bitten.

Innate Potato
This new potato that resists browning and has fewer unsightly wasteful bruises has been approved by the USDA for commercial planting.

Aquabounty Salmon
This new salmon is genetically engineered to reach market size more quickly than non-GE farm-raised Atlantic salmon. It is available to consumers in Canada.

Want to learn more about GMOs from the experts? Try these posts:

What does a GMO look like?
GMO FAQs

Lasted edited Aug. 15, 2016
Originally posted  Nov. 13, 2014

_{“Produce” by lukestehr is licensed under CC BY ND.}

The post What Foods are Genetically Modified? appeared first on Best Food Facts.

All fries begin life as a potato, so how do they grow?

Dr. Douches: “The potato from a crop perspective is unusual in that it is vegetatively propagated (the new plant is grown from the original plant) rather than through a seed. However, over time the potatoes accumulate viruses from growing in the field and they start to degenerate. If you save an actual seed from this starchy vegetable, you don’t maintain the variety. The unique genetic combination you have is lost.

“Potato breeding remained largely unchanged for 50 years until recently. When USDA and universities invested in public potato breeding efforts, they started making crosses and taking those families to the field and making selections, going through cycles of evaluation selection to sort through and find the best potatoes.”

How have potatoes developed over time?

Dr. Douches: “It was a Rev. Goodrich in upstate New York who got some potatoes and started making crosses. Our Russet Burbank potato, which is used for making french fries, comes from that lineage. Russet Burbank actually came from a chance seedling that was selected by Luther Burbank in the 1860s. That potato hung around for a while and a Russet mutation was found in it in the late 1800s and early 1900s. The Russet Burbank potato was well adapted to growing in the Pacific Northwest and so during World War II, they were using that to make potato flakes for the war effort. It was after World War II that the frozen fry industry started up as an innovative idea.”

How does genetic engineering play a role in making better potatoes?

Dr. Douches: “Having the ability to insert genes allows us to improve the traditional breeding practice because we can make a selection and have the potential to improve it further for certain key traits, like what has been done with the Innate potato. Some of those things are difficult, if not impossible, to do conventionally, as is the case with the insect resistance trait. Genetic engineering gives a tool to correct varieties that have some deficiencies and make them better for consumers, farmers and even processors, depending on the trait. Plus, we now have DNA sequence on the potato, which has allowed us to develop more analytical breeding schemes to follow certain genes in the potato. That’s really changing the landscape for the breeding.”

How can we know these GM (genetically modified) potatoes are safe to eat?

Dr. Douches: “They have to go through the federal regulatory agencies to get approval, which is a very extensive examination to determine whether the potatoes are safe to eat or safe to grow in the environment and whether they have any genes that may have an effect on the organisms in the environment. They look at insect-resistant genes, virus-resistant genes, and disease-resistant genes and whether they’re going to have any negative effects on the environment. Our non-GM food crops are not put through that gauntlet of analysis, so the most tested food we have out there is our GM-developed crops.”

What can we expect from potatoes in the future?

Dr. Douches: “They’re going to be self-driving and they’re going to fly like drones! No, what’s happening is the consumer is going to continue to get potatoes that are more healthful and are packed with more nutrition. But what they won’t see is that these potatoes are also performing on the farmers’ fields, giving them more resistance to the biotics problems like diseases and insects and also to problems like water needs or climate stresses.”

Potatoes are part of the equation; it also takes oil to give a french fry its flavor and texture. To learn more about innovation in oil, we went to Best Food Facts dietitian Sarah Downs.

What is new in frying oils?

Downs: “High-oleic soybeans are varieties developed with farmers and end-use consumers in mind. They have the same yields as other soybeans but offer higher-functioning soybean oil that remains stable in high-heat conditions, can add shelf life to products and, most importantly, contains less saturated fat, no trans-fat and has the highest amount of heart-healthy monounsaturated fat available in soy. Ultimately, high-oleic soybeans have a healthier oil profile and increased oil stability.”

What sets it apart from other oils?

Downs: “It has oil stability and contains monounsaturated fats. Many oils naturally are high in monounsaturated fats but are not very shelf stable.”

Does that mean it is healthier than other oils?

Downs: “There are many types of oils that can provide health benefits in moderation (canola and olive oil are two), and ultimately it depends on how you are using them because different oils are best for different types of cooking. High-oleic oil is a good choice because it is high in unsaturated fats, low in saturated fat and has no trans fat. Monounsaturated fats have been shown to lower LDL cholesterol (the bad kind) without lowering HDL cholesterol (the good kind), which may help reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke.”

French fries and frying oils are truly a story of food innovation. Check out the infographic below to learn more about the evolution of the french fry.

The post The French Fry: How Innovation Has Made It Even Better appeared first on Best Food Facts.

Why are so many grocery stores and other markets so big on non-GMO foods and products if this is a safe way of producing food?

Anne Cundiff:

As a registered dietitian, nutrition expert and retail dietitian, my focus is to provide my clients and customers with sound nutrition advice based on science as well as meeting my clients and customers where they are in their wellness journey. GMO foods are safe for human and animal consumption based on science and research. However, there are some consumers who are concerned with GMOs in their foods and are making the personal choice to not purchase these foods. I feel retailers are responding by providing these consumers with products that meet their specific wellness needs.

We had some follow-up questions for Anne:

How can consumers differentiate between non-GMO and GMO foods at the grocery store? Are non-GMO foods in a separate section, or do consumers need to look at packaging to determine which products are non-GMO?

Anne Cundiff:

There are a couple ways to differentiate between non-GMO and GMO foods at the grocery store. I always recommend looking at packaging of foods and products. It is not required for this designation to be listed, but many companies are adding to the food label because of consumer demand. It will be stated by the nutrition label/nutrition list. There is also the Non-GMO Project, which is a non-profit, providing third-party verification and labeling of non-GMO foods and products. The other way to ensure a food or product is non-GMO is to purchase food labeled as organic. 

As a registered dietitian, what can you tell us about the nutritional quality of GMO versus non-GMO foods?

Anne Cundiff:

Foods with GMOs are perfectly safe and have the same nutrition quality of non-GMO foods. I consume foods with GMOs and confidently purchase, prepare and serve foods with GMOs to my own family. 

_{Image: “NOV 20 – SNAP – Grocery Shopping” by U.S. Department of Agriculture is licensed under CC BY 2.0.}

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We wanted to know more about this technology, so we reached out to Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist in Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis, for some insight into what this technology is and why it’s being used on some foods.

What is CRISPR?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: CRISPR stands for “Clustered Regulatory Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats.” It refers to a specific type of gene editing that can precisely edit or change the genetic code, or DNA, within a specific living animal or plant. In the same way that spell check identifies and corrects single-letter errors in a word or grammar errors in a sentence, gene editing can be used to identify and change the letters that make up the genetic code.

Is gene editing the same as genetic modification/engineering?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Gene editing is different from traditional genetic engineering. Continuing with the analogy of a word processor, genetic engineering enables a gene sequence of “foreign DNA” to be “cut and pasted” from one species to another; typically, the location where the new DNA sequence inserts into the genome is random. Gene editing can, delete, or replace a series of letters in the genetic code at a very precise location in the genome. If editing is used to add some letters, they may or may not be a sequence from the same species.

What can CRISPR gene-editing technology be used for?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: The basic idea behind gene editing is the ability to introduce, delete or replace letters in the genetic code, which could be helpful in correcting certain diseases and disorders, or for selecting specific desired traits (for example, a mushroom that doesn’t brown).

Are there any regulations surrounding the use of this technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires all food placed on the market to be safe irrespective of the breeding method that was used to produce that food. That requirement is inescapable. Plants and animals produced using conventional breeding techniques require no special pre-market safety review, although they are required to be safe. In the case of plants where biotechnology has been used in the breeding process, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Biotechnology Regulatory Services has a specific “Am I Regulated?” process to determine if the new plant variety may pose a pest risk to plants. If it does not, then it is not considered a regulated article. The response of APHIS to other “Am I Regulated” letters is available here.

With regard to animals, at the current time it is unclear whether gene editing will be formally regulated by the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine as a “New Animal Drug,” as is the case with animals that have been produced using genetic engineering. Animal breeding per se is not regulated by the federal government, although it is illegal to sell an unsafe food product regardless of the breeding method that was used to produce it. Gene editing does not necessarily introduce any foreign genetic DNA or “transgenic sequences” into the genome, and many of the changes produced would not be distinguishable from naturally-occurring variations. As such, many applications will not fit the classical definition of genetic engineering.

What is CRISPR’s potential impact to food and agriculture?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Gene editing could be used to target many different traits in agricultural breeding programs. For example, it has already been used to produce genetically hornless Holstein dairy cattle and to generate pigs that show resilience to devastating diseases such as African Swine Fever. Recently, a paper was published showing that gene-edited pigs were protected from Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) virus, a particularly devastating disease of the global pork industry. It has also been used in plant breeding to produce non-browning mushrooms by knocking out the gene responsible for producing the enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which causes browning in some fruits when they are exposed to air, but otherwise lacks any indispensable role in plant metabolism.

Are there any risks associated with use of the technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: There are potential risks and hazards associated with any technology. In this case, the most obvious potential hazard might be off-target changes in the genome — meaning a change in the DNA code at a location other than that targeted. This same hazard is associated with conventional breeding techniques like mutagenesis. In fact, gene editing is much more precise than random mutagenesis, which has been used in the development of over 3,000 varieties of plants. Random naturally-occurring mutations happen in every species, including our own, every generation. They are the basis of the genetic variation we see in natural populations and are in fact the driving force of evolution and agricultural breeding programs.

Why was CRISPR used on mushrooms?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: According to the letter submitted to the USDA, CRISPR was used to produce non-browning mushrooms. As previously mentioned, the researched inactivated the gene that codes for polyphenol oxidase (PPO), which causes browning in some fruits when they are exposed to air. A similar naturally-occurring mutation in the same PPO gene happened in grapes in Australia in 1962 in a grape line called “Sultana.” The fruits were pale and exhibited a significant decrease in PPO activity and were used to produce golden sultanas. This PPO enzyme is also the one that was turned off in the Innate non-browning potato and the Arctic Apple. Such non-browning food products will help reduce food waste.

What do consumers need to know about foods made using CRISPR technology — mushrooms, for example? Are they safe?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: As with all breeding methods, the safety of food derived from new varieties depends on the attributes of the end product, not the breeding method that was used to derive them. It is illegal to sell an unsafe food product regardless of the breeding method that was used to produce it. Every meal we have ever consumed contains genetic variation. A bite of apple has a very different protein and DNA makeup than a bite of banana. The digestive process breaks down DNA irrespective of its origin — and DNA is GRAS (generally regarded as safe), which is good as ALL food contains DNA. The sequence of the DNA does not matter from a food safety perspective. When turning off a protein like the PPO gene, there is no new protein being introduced into the mushroom — the plant just does not produce the PPO protein that is normally consumed and digested when people eat mushrooms. Breeders are often changing the DNA and protein composition of common plants and animals — a Golden Delicious apple has a different composition than a Granny Smith apple, for example, but they are both safe to eat.

What other foods could benefit from this technology?

Dr. Van Eenennaam: Really, all domesticated plant and animal breeding programs could benefit from breeding methods that enable breeders to more precisely improve key traits like disease resistance and resilience. Such improvement are likely to be increasingly valuable given projected climate variability and extreme weather events.

_{The image “DNA” by Caroline Davis2010 is licensed under CC BY 2.0.}

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To help answer these questions, we talked with Dr. Alison Van Eenennaam, Cooperative Extension Specialist, Animal Genomics and Biotechnology at the University of California-Davis.

How does genetically engineered salmon differ from conventional salmon?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

The AquAdvantage salmon is a fast-growing Atlantic salmon. It is able to reach market weight in about half the time it takes conventional salmon and, as a result, requires about 20 percent less feed. This means a fillet of salmon can be produced more efficiently using less feed, decreasing the environmental footprint.

Why was this salmon genetically engineered?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

This salmon was designed to continuously grow throughout the year, rather than decreasing growth in the winter months. Wild salmon typically grow more slowly due to feed scarcity in the colder winter months. AquAdvantage is growing its salmon in tanks, and will provide adequate feed to allow for consistent growth.

Does GE salmon offer any benefits?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

This salmon enables a more sustainable approach to the production of Atlantic salmon. Currently, Atlantic salmon makes up over half of the salmon consumed in the U.S., and it is farmed in ocean-based net pens and imported from countries including Scotland, Chile and Canada. These facilities have some deleterious environmental impacts including pollution, escapement and the transmission of disease and pests from wild fish to the cultured fish, and vice versa. The efficiency of AquAdvantage allows for land-based production of Atlantic salmon to become a cost-effective proposition. The company is planning to grow the fish in contained tanks, which will preclude some of the environmental concerns associated with net pen-based aquaculture.

AquAdvantage Salmon enables a more sustainable approach to the production of Atlantic salmon.
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How is the salmon genetically engineered?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

Over a quarter of a century ago, a construct that contains a snippet of DNA encoding a growth hormone from the king salmon connected to DNA regulatory sequences from the ocean pout was added to the eggs of an Atlantic salmon spawn. A fast-growing fish was selected out of that spawn and was shown to be carrying the construct in its DNA. Since that time, the construct has been stably transmitted through normal inheritance over many generations, in the same way that I passed on my blue eyes to my kids.

Are there any safety concerns regarding consumption of the GE salmon?

Dr. Van Eenennaam:

The salmon is basically a fast-growing fish. This is a trait that is selected in many breeding programs. Because this particular line was produced through genetic engineering, it underwent a mandatory evaluation by the FDA. They found the fish was as safe to eat as conventional salmon and, under the proposed land-based growing conditions at a farm in the highlands of Panama, posed minimal risk to the environment. As with all technologies, risks need to be considered in comparison to existing production systems, and weighed against benefits. There are some known risks associated with existing production systems, such as the fertile lines of selected lines of Atlantic salmon escaping from ocean net pen-based aquacultural systems.

_{The image “Salmon” by Ján Sokoly is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.}

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OSF sent us a few of the Golden Delicious variety of Arctic Apple for us to try. To find out if there was a difference in taste between the genetically modified apple and a traditional apple you can currently find at the grocery store, we put them to the test with our Best Food Facts team. Here’s what they said:

Neither this video nor the taste test was sponsored by OSF. The opinions shared are those of the taste testers.

_{The image “In one movement….” by storebukkebruse is licensed under CC BY 2.0.}

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